diff --git a/CMakeLists.txt b/CMakeLists.txt
index 4d9f5398..61147aa6 100644
--- a/CMakeLists.txt
+++ b/CMakeLists.txt
@@ -268,7 +268,6 @@ set(LOVR_SRC
   src/core/arr.c
   src/core/fs.c
   src/core/map.c
-  src/core/ref.c
   src/core/utf.c
   src/core/util.c
   src/core/zip.c
diff --git a/Tupfile b/Tupfile
index fa9b206f..80396bef 100644
--- a/Tupfile
+++ b/Tupfile
@@ -10,7 +10,6 @@ SRC += src/core/map.c
 ifneq (@(PICO),y)
 SRC += src/core/os_$(PLATFORM).c
 endif
-SRC += src/core/ref.c
 SRC += src/core/utf.c
 SRC += src/core/util.c
 SRC += src/core/zip.c
diff --git a/src/api/api.c b/src/api/api.c
index a1a6e7de..4d8e8ebc 100644
--- a/src/api/api.c
+++ b/src/api/api.c
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 #include "api.h"
 #include "core/os.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <stdarg.h>
diff --git a/src/api/l_audio.c b/src/api/l_audio.c
index 39772713..f53c7bbf 100644
--- a/src/api/l_audio.c
+++ b/src/api/l_audio.c
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
 #include "data/blob.h"
 #include "data/soundData.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 
diff --git a/src/api/l_data.c b/src/api/l_data.c
index 486046d6..1b52c562 100644
--- a/src/api/l_data.c
+++ b/src/api/l_data.c
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 #include "data/rasterizer.h"
 #include "data/soundData.h"
 #include "data/textureData.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <string.h>
 
diff --git a/src/api/l_event.c b/src/api/l_event.c
index d559f498..977a4628 100644
--- a/src/api/l_event.c
+++ b/src/api/l_event.c
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 #include "event/event.h"
 #include "thread/thread.h"
 #include "core/os.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <string.h>
diff --git a/src/api/l_filesystem.c b/src/api/l_filesystem.c
index 1093abf9..f4eb5d9a 100644
--- a/src/api/l_filesystem.c
+++ b/src/api/l_filesystem.c
@@ -3,7 +3,6 @@
 #include "data/blob.h"
 #include "core/fs.h"
 #include "core/os.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <string.h>
diff --git a/src/api/l_graphics.c b/src/api/l_graphics.c
index 9f1e75d7..078ef52e 100644
--- a/src/api/l_graphics.c
+++ b/src/api/l_graphics.c
@@ -11,7 +11,6 @@
 #include "data/rasterizer.h"
 #include "data/textureData.h"
 #include "core/arr.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <math.h>
 #include <stdbool.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
diff --git a/src/api/l_graphics_canvas.c b/src/api/l_graphics_canvas.c
index 7f1ac1bb..6667a8fe 100644
--- a/src/api/l_graphics_canvas.c
+++ b/src/api/l_graphics_canvas.c
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 #include "api.h"
 #include "graphics/canvas.h"
 #include "graphics/graphics.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 
 static int luax_checkattachment(lua_State* L, int index, Attachment* attachment) {
diff --git a/src/api/l_graphics_mesh.c b/src/api/l_graphics_mesh.c
index 5288c8c9..212492ba 100644
--- a/src/api/l_graphics_mesh.c
+++ b/src/api/l_graphics_mesh.c
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 #include "graphics/material.h"
 #include "graphics/mesh.h"
 #include "data/blob.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <limits.h>
 
 static int l_lovrMeshAttachAttributes(lua_State* L) {
diff --git a/src/api/l_headset.c b/src/api/l_headset.c
index aa6488de..c3f472fc 100644
--- a/src/api/l_headset.c
+++ b/src/api/l_headset.c
@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@
 #include "graphics/texture.h"
 #include "core/arr.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 
 StringEntry lovrHeadsetDriver[] = {
diff --git a/src/api/l_math.c b/src/api/l_math.c
index 1df84554..f3ad60a5 100644
--- a/src/api/l_math.c
+++ b/src/api/l_math.c
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 #include "math/pool.h"
 #include "math/randomGenerator.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 
diff --git a/src/api/l_physics.c b/src/api/l_physics.c
index 14c09d22..1902bd4c 100644
--- a/src/api/l_physics.c
+++ b/src/api/l_physics.c
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 #include "api.h"
 #include "physics/physics.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 
 StringEntry lovrShapeType[] = {
diff --git a/src/api/l_physics_world.c b/src/api/l_physics_world.c
index 0e7e2d17..3c15ad74 100644
--- a/src/api/l_physics_world.c
+++ b/src/api/l_physics_world.c
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 #include "api.h"
 #include "physics/physics.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdbool.h>
 
diff --git a/src/api/l_thread.c b/src/api/l_thread.c
index 5753f689..2ec95676 100644
--- a/src/api/l_thread.c
+++ b/src/api/l_thread.c
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 #include "event/event.h"
 #include "thread/thread.h"
 #include "thread/channel.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <lualib.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
diff --git a/src/core/ref.c b/src/core/ref.c
deleted file mode 100644
index 3ecbf37f..00000000
--- a/src/core/ref.c
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,10 +0,0 @@
-#include "ref.h"
-#include "util.h"
-#include <stdlib.h>
-
-void* _lovrAlloc(size_t size) {
-  char* ref = calloc(1, sizeof(size_t) + size);
-  lovrAssert(ref, "Out of memory");
-  *((Ref*) ref) = 1;
-  return ref + sizeof(size_t);
-}
diff --git a/src/core/ref.h b/src/core/ref.h
deleted file mode 100644
index 10e56de5..00000000
--- a/src/core/ref.h
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,57 +0,0 @@
-#include <stdint.h>
-#include <stddef.h>
-
-#pragma once
-
-#ifndef __has_builtin
-#define __has_builtin(x) 0
-#endif
-
-#ifdef LOVR_DISABLE_THREAD
-
-// Thread module is off, don't use atomics
-
-typedef uint32_t Ref;
-static inline uint32_t ref_inc(Ref* ref) { return ++*ref; }
-static inline uint32_t ref_dec(Ref* ref) { return --*ref; }
-
-#elif defined(_MSC_VER)
-
-// MSVC atomics
-
-#include <intrin.h>
-typedef uint32_t Ref;
-static inline uint32_t ref_inc(Ref* ref) { return _InterlockedIncrement((volatile long*) ref); }
-static inline uint32_t ref_dec(Ref* ref) { return _InterlockedDecrement((volatile long*) ref); }
-
-#elif (defined(__GNUC_MINOR__) && (__GNUC__ > 4 || (__GNUC__ == 4 && __GNUC_MINOR__ >= 7))) \
-   || (__has_builtin(__atomic_add_fetch) && __has_builtin(__atomic_sub_fetch))
-
-// GCC/Clang atomics
-
-typedef uint32_t Ref;
-static inline uint32_t ref_inc(Ref* ref) { return __atomic_add_fetch(ref, 1, __ATOMIC_SEQ_CST); }
-static inline uint32_t ref_dec(Ref* ref) { return __atomic_sub_fetch(ref, 1, __ATOMIC_SEQ_CST); }
-
-#else
-
-// No known compiler-specific atomics-- fall back to C11 atomics
-
-// stdatomic.h doesn't work in c++ (except on Android, where it is fine)
-#if !defined(__ANDROID__) && defined(__cplusplus)
-#error "The header core/ref.h cannot currently be included from C++ when threading is enabled with this compiler. Either remove your ref.h include from any C++ files, or rebuild LOVR with -DLOVR_DISABLE_THREAD=ON"
-#endif
-
-#include <stdatomic.h>
-typedef _Atomic(uint32_t) Ref;
-static inline uint32_t ref_inc(Ref* ref) { return atomic_fetch_add(ref, 1) + 1; }
-static inline uint32_t ref_dec(Ref* ref) { return atomic_fetch_sub(ref, 1) - 1; }
-
-#endif
-
-void* _lovrAlloc(size_t size);
-#define toRef(o) ((Ref*) (((char*) (o)) - sizeof(size_t)))
-#define lovrAlloc(T) (T*) _lovrAlloc(sizeof(T))
-#define lovrRetain(o) if (o && !ref_inc(toRef(o))) { lovrThrow("Refcount overflow"); }
-#define lovrRelease(T, o) if (o && !ref_dec(toRef(o))) lovr ## T ## Destroy(o), free(toRef(o));
-#define _lovrRelease(o, f) if (o && !ref_dec(toRef(o))) f(o), free(toRef(o));
diff --git a/src/core/util.h b/src/core/util.h
index 00666b8e..5017effd 100644
--- a/src/core/util.h
+++ b/src/core/util.h
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 #include <stdarg.h>
 #include <stddef.h>
 #include <stdint.h>
+#include <stdatomic.h>
 
 #pragma once
 
@@ -56,3 +57,9 @@ static inline uint64_t hash64(const void* data, size_t length) {
   }
   return hash;
 }
+
+// Refcounting
+typedef atomic_uint ref_t;
+#define lovrRetain(o) if (o) { atomic_fetch_add((ref_t*) (o), 1); }
+#define lovrRelease(T, o) if (o && atomic_fetch_sub((ref_t*) (o), 1) == 1) lovr ## T ## Destroy(o), free(o);
+#define _lovrRelease(o, f) if (o && atomic_fetch_sub((ref_t*) (o), 1) == 1) f(o), free(o);
diff --git a/src/modules/audio/audio.c b/src/modules/audio/audio.c
index 53cf51ef..2a75c9f8 100644
--- a/src/modules/audio/audio.c
+++ b/src/modules/audio/audio.c
@@ -2,7 +2,7 @@
 #include "audio/spatializer.h"
 #include "data/soundData.h"
 #include "core/arr.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
+#include "core/maf.h"
 #include "core/os.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include "lib/miniaudio/miniaudio.h"
@@ -21,6 +21,7 @@ static const ma_format miniaudioFormats[] = {
 #define BUFFER_SIZE 256
 
 struct Source {
+  ref_t ref;
   Source* next;
   SoundData* sound;
   ma_data_converter* converter;
@@ -324,7 +325,9 @@ struct SoundData* lovrAudioGetCaptureStream() {
 // Source
 
 Source* lovrSourceCreate(SoundData* sound, bool spatial) {
-  Source* source = lovrAlloc(Source);
+  Source* source = calloc(1, sizeof(Source));
+  lovrAssert(source, "Out of memory");
+  source->ref = 1;
   source->sound = sound;
   lovrRetain(source->sound);
 
diff --git a/src/modules/data/blob.c b/src/modules/data/blob.c
index e699b19a..a1af4201 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/blob.c
+++ b/src/modules/data/blob.c
@@ -1,7 +1,10 @@
 #include "data/blob.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 
-Blob* lovrBlobInit(Blob* blob, void* data, size_t size, const char* name) {
+Blob* lovrBlobCreate(void* data, size_t size, const char* name) {
+  Blob* blob = calloc(1, sizeof(Blob));
+  lovrAssert(blob, "Out of memory");
+  blob->ref = 1;
   blob->data = data;
   blob->size = size;
   blob->name = name;
diff --git a/src/modules/data/blob.h b/src/modules/data/blob.h
index f534f0b1..f835a801 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/blob.h
+++ b/src/modules/data/blob.h
@@ -1,13 +1,14 @@
 #include <stddef.h>
+#include "core/util.h"
 
 #pragma once
 
 typedef struct Blob {
+  ref_t ref;
   void* data;
   size_t size;
   const char* name;
 } Blob;
 
-Blob* lovrBlobInit(Blob* blob, void* data, size_t size, const char* name);
-#define lovrBlobCreate(...) lovrBlobInit(lovrAlloc(Blob), __VA_ARGS__)
+Blob* lovrBlobCreate(void* data, size_t size, const char* name);
 void lovrBlobDestroy(void* ref);
diff --git a/src/modules/data/modelData.c b/src/modules/data/modelData.c
index 9c5c73f4..79e8709b 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/modelData.c
+++ b/src/modules/data/modelData.c
@@ -1,10 +1,13 @@
 #include "data/modelData.h"
 #include "data/blob.h"
 #include "data/textureData.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 
-ModelData* lovrModelDataInit(ModelData* model, Blob* source, ModelDataIO* io) {
+ModelData* lovrModelDataCreate(Blob* source, ModelDataIO* io) {
+  ModelData* model = calloc(1, sizeof(ModelData));
+  lovrAssert(model, "Out of memory");
+  model->ref = 1;
+
   if (lovrModelDataInitGltf(model, source, io)) {
     return model;
   } else if (lovrModelDataInitObj(model, source, io)) {
diff --git a/src/modules/data/modelData.h b/src/modules/data/modelData.h
index 979713d4..54c8994a 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/modelData.h
+++ b/src/modules/data/modelData.h
@@ -179,6 +179,7 @@ typedef struct {
 } ModelSkin;
 
 typedef struct ModelData {
+  ref_t ref;
   void* data;
   struct Blob** blobs;
   ModelBuffer* buffers;
@@ -217,8 +218,7 @@ typedef struct ModelData {
 
 typedef void* ModelDataIO(const char* filename, size_t* bytesRead);
 
-ModelData* lovrModelDataInit(ModelData* model, struct Blob* blob, ModelDataIO* io);
-#define lovrModelDataCreate(...) lovrModelDataInit(lovrAlloc(ModelData), __VA_ARGS__)
+ModelData* lovrModelDataCreate(struct Blob* blob, ModelDataIO* io);
 ModelData* lovrModelDataInitGltf(ModelData* model, struct Blob* blob, ModelDataIO* io);
 ModelData* lovrModelDataInitObj(ModelData* model, struct Blob* blob, ModelDataIO* io);
 void lovrModelDataDestroy(void* ref);
diff --git a/src/modules/data/modelData_gltf.c b/src/modules/data/modelData_gltf.c
index bbdee8d3..435b69c0 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/modelData_gltf.c
+++ b/src/modules/data/modelData_gltf.c
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 #include "data/blob.h"
 #include "data/textureData.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "lib/jsmn/jsmn.h"
 #include <stdbool.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
diff --git a/src/modules/data/modelData_obj.c b/src/modules/data/modelData_obj.c
index 6b4c86ba..876270c0 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/modelData_obj.c
+++ b/src/modules/data/modelData_obj.c
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 #include "core/arr.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
 #include "core/map.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <float.h>
diff --git a/src/modules/data/rasterizer.c b/src/modules/data/rasterizer.c
index 79fbcf27..8ea9003f 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/rasterizer.c
+++ b/src/modules/data/rasterizer.c
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 #include "data/blob.h"
 #include "data/textureData.h"
 #include "resources/VarelaRound.ttf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/utf.h"
 #include "lib/stb/stb_truetype.h"
 #include <msdfgen-c.h>
@@ -10,7 +9,11 @@
 #include <string.h>
 #include <math.h>
 
-Rasterizer* lovrRasterizerInit(Rasterizer* rasterizer, Blob* blob, float size) {
+Rasterizer* lovrRasterizerCreate(Blob* blob, float size) {
+  Rasterizer* rasterizer = calloc(1, sizeof(Rasterizer));
+  lovrAssert(rasterizer, "Out of memory");
+  rasterizer->ref = 1;
+
   stbtt_fontinfo* font = &rasterizer->font;
   const unsigned char* data = blob ? blob->data : src_resources_VarelaRound_ttf;
   if (!stbtt_InitFont(font, data, stbtt_GetFontOffsetForIndex(data, 0))) {
diff --git a/src/modules/data/rasterizer.h b/src/modules/data/rasterizer.h
index 84763de1..2607bdd7 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/rasterizer.h
+++ b/src/modules/data/rasterizer.h
@@ -1,4 +1,5 @@
 #include "lib/stb/stb_truetype.h"
+#include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdint.h>
 #include <stdbool.h>
 
@@ -10,6 +11,7 @@ struct Blob;
 struct TextureData;
 
 typedef struct Rasterizer {
+  ref_t ref;
   stbtt_fontinfo font;
   struct Blob* blob;
   float size;
@@ -34,8 +36,7 @@ typedef struct {
   struct TextureData* data;
 } Glyph;
 
-Rasterizer* lovrRasterizerInit(Rasterizer* rasterizer, struct Blob* blob, float size);
-#define lovrRasterizerCreate(...) lovrRasterizerInit(lovrAlloc(Rasterizer), __VA_ARGS__)
+Rasterizer* lovrRasterizerCreate(struct Blob* blob, float size);
 void lovrRasterizerDestroy(void* ref);
 bool lovrRasterizerHasGlyph(Rasterizer* fontData, uint32_t character);
 bool lovrRasterizerHasGlyphs(Rasterizer* fontData, const char* str);
diff --git a/src/modules/data/soundData.c b/src/modules/data/soundData.c
index ce5a3a02..2beeb959 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/soundData.c
+++ b/src/modules/data/soundData.c
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 #include "data/soundData.h"
 #include "data/blob.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "lib/stb/stb_vorbis.h"
 #include "lib/miniaudio/miniaudio.h"
 #define MINIMP3_FLOAT_OUTPUT
@@ -16,6 +15,7 @@ static const ma_format miniaudioFormats[] = {
 };
 
 struct SoundData {
+  ref_t ref;
   uint32_t (*read)(SoundData* soundData, uint32_t offset, uint32_t count, void* data);
   struct Blob* blob;
   void* decoder;
@@ -73,7 +73,9 @@ static uint32_t lovrSoundDataReadMp3(SoundData* soundData, uint32_t offset, uint
 // SoundData
 
 SoundData* lovrSoundDataCreateRaw(uint32_t frames, SampleFormat format, uint32_t channels, uint32_t sampleRate, struct Blob* blob) {
-  SoundData* soundData = lovrAlloc(SoundData);
+  SoundData* soundData = calloc(1, sizeof(SoundData));
+  lovrAssert(soundData, "Out of memory");
+  soundData->ref = 1;
   soundData->frames = frames;
   soundData->format = format;
   soundData->channels = channels;
@@ -92,7 +94,9 @@ SoundData* lovrSoundDataCreateRaw(uint32_t frames, SampleFormat format, uint32_t
 }
 
 SoundData* lovrSoundDataCreateStream(uint32_t frames, SampleFormat format, uint32_t channels, uint32_t sampleRate) {
-  SoundData* soundData = lovrAlloc(SoundData);
+  SoundData* soundData = calloc(1, sizeof(SoundData));
+  lovrAssert(soundData, "Out of memory");
+  soundData->ref = 1;
   soundData->frames = frames;
   soundData->format = format;
   soundData->channels = channels;
@@ -110,7 +114,9 @@ SoundData* lovrSoundDataCreateStream(uint32_t frames, SampleFormat format, uint3
 }
 
 SoundData* lovrSoundDataCreateFromFile(struct Blob* blob, bool decode) {
-  SoundData* soundData = lovrAlloc(SoundData);
+  SoundData* soundData = calloc(1, sizeof(SoundData));
+  lovrAssert(soundData, "Out of memory");
+  soundData->ref = 1;
 
   if (blob->size >= 4 && !memcmp(blob->data, "OggS", 4)) {
     soundData->decoder = stb_vorbis_open_memory(blob->data, (int) blob->size, NULL, NULL);
diff --git a/src/modules/data/textureData.c b/src/modules/data/textureData.c
index c2659393..fd457083 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/textureData.c
+++ b/src/modules/data/textureData.c
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #include "data/textureData.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "lib/stb/stb_image.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <stdbool.h>
@@ -453,7 +452,10 @@ static bool parseASTC(uint8_t* bytes, size_t size, TextureData* textureData) {
   return true;
 }
 
-TextureData* lovrTextureDataInit(TextureData* textureData, uint32_t width, uint32_t height, Blob* contents, uint8_t value, TextureFormat format) {
+TextureData* lovrTextureDataCreate(uint32_t width, uint32_t height, Blob* contents, uint8_t value, TextureFormat format) {
+  TextureData* textureData = calloc(1, sizeof(TextureData));
+  lovrAssert(textureData, "Out of memory");
+  textureData->ref = 1;
   size_t pixelSize = getPixelSize(format);
   size_t size = width * height * pixelSize;
   lovrAssert(width > 0 && height > 0, "TextureData dimensions must be positive");
@@ -473,8 +475,11 @@ TextureData* lovrTextureDataInit(TextureData* textureData, uint32_t width, uint3
   return textureData;
 }
 
-TextureData* lovrTextureDataInitFromBlob(TextureData* textureData, Blob* blob, bool flip) {
-  textureData->blob = lovrAlloc(Blob);
+TextureData* lovrTextureDataCreateFromBlob(Blob* blob, bool flip) {
+  TextureData* textureData = calloc(1, sizeof(TextureData));
+  lovrAssert(textureData, "Out of memory");
+  textureData->ref = 1;
+  textureData->blob = lovrBlobCreate(NULL, 0, NULL);
   if (parseDDS(blob->data, blob->size, textureData)) {
     textureData->source = blob;
     lovrRetain(blob);
diff --git a/src/modules/data/textureData.h b/src/modules/data/textureData.h
index a66dce20..4f022738 100644
--- a/src/modules/data/textureData.h
+++ b/src/modules/data/textureData.h
@@ -51,6 +51,7 @@ typedef struct {
 } Mipmap;
 
 typedef struct TextureData {
+  ref_t ref;
   Blob* blob;
   uint32_t width;
   uint32_t height;
@@ -60,10 +61,8 @@ typedef struct TextureData {
   uint32_t mipmapCount;
 } TextureData;
 
-TextureData* lovrTextureDataInit(TextureData* textureData, uint32_t width, uint32_t height, Blob* contents, uint8_t value, TextureFormat format);
-TextureData* lovrTextureDataInitFromBlob(TextureData* textureData, Blob* blob, bool flip);
-#define lovrTextureDataCreate(...) lovrTextureDataInit(lovrAlloc(TextureData), __VA_ARGS__)
-#define lovrTextureDataCreateFromBlob(...) lovrTextureDataInitFromBlob(lovrAlloc(TextureData), __VA_ARGS__)
+TextureData* lovrTextureDataCreate(uint32_t width, uint32_t height, Blob* contents, uint8_t value, TextureFormat format);
+TextureData* lovrTextureDataCreateFromBlob(Blob* blob, bool flip);
 Color lovrTextureDataGetPixel(TextureData* textureData, uint32_t x, uint32_t y);
 void lovrTextureDataSetPixel(TextureData* textureData, uint32_t x, uint32_t y, Color color);
 Blob* lovrTextureDataEncode(TextureData* textureData);
diff --git a/src/modules/event/event.c b/src/modules/event/event.c
index 55f76974..74cc5c5c 100644
--- a/src/modules/event/event.c
+++ b/src/modules/event/event.c
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 #include "thread/thread.h"
 #include "core/arr.h"
 #include "core/os.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include "core/utf.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
diff --git a/src/modules/graphics/font.c b/src/modules/graphics/font.c
index a9960fed..65cc6b46 100644
--- a/src/modules/graphics/font.c
+++ b/src/modules/graphics/font.c
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 #include "data/textureData.h"
 #include "core/arr.h"
 #include "core/map.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/utf.h"
 #include <string.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
@@ -21,6 +20,7 @@ typedef struct {
 } FontAtlas;
 
 struct Font {
+  ref_t ref;
   Rasterizer* rasterizer;
   Texture* texture;
   FontAtlas atlas;
@@ -50,7 +50,10 @@ static void lovrFontExpandTexture(Font* font);
 static void lovrFontCreateTexture(Font* font);
 
 Font* lovrFontCreate(Rasterizer* rasterizer) {
-  Font* font = lovrAlloc(Font);
+  Font* font = calloc(1, sizeof(Font));
+  lovrAssert(font, "Out of memory");
+  font->ref = 1;
+
   lovrRetain(rasterizer);
   font->rasterizer = rasterizer;
   font->lineHeight = 1.f;
diff --git a/src/modules/graphics/graphics.c b/src/modules/graphics/graphics.c
index 1c658061..4dc259f3 100644
--- a/src/modules/graphics/graphics.c
+++ b/src/modules/graphics/graphics.c
@@ -9,7 +9,6 @@
 #include "event/event.h"
 #include "math/math.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <string.h>
diff --git a/src/modules/graphics/material.c b/src/modules/graphics/material.c
index 83e4a679..f89a94d2 100644
--- a/src/modules/graphics/material.c
+++ b/src/modules/graphics/material.c
@@ -3,11 +3,14 @@
 #include "graphics/shader.h"
 #include "graphics/texture.h"
 #include "resources/shaders.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <math.h>
 
-Material* lovrMaterialInit(Material* material) {
+Material* lovrMaterialCreate() {
+  Material* material = calloc(1, sizeof(Material));
+  lovrAssert(material, "Out of memory");
+  material->ref = 1;
+
   for (int i = 0; i < MAX_MATERIAL_SCALARS; i++) {
     material->scalars[i] = 1.f;
   }
diff --git a/src/modules/graphics/material.h b/src/modules/graphics/material.h
index 60667c0f..722d054d 100644
--- a/src/modules/graphics/material.h
+++ b/src/modules/graphics/material.h
@@ -7,14 +7,14 @@ struct Texture;
 struct Shader;
 
 typedef struct Material {
+  ref_t ref;
   float scalars[MAX_MATERIAL_SCALARS];
   Color colors[MAX_MATERIAL_COLORS];
   struct Texture* textures[MAX_MATERIAL_TEXTURES];
   float transform[9];
 } Material;
 
-Material* lovrMaterialInit(Material* material);
-#define lovrMaterialCreate() lovrMaterialInit(lovrAlloc(Material))
+Material* lovrMaterialCreate(void);
 void lovrMaterialDestroy(void* ref);
 void lovrMaterialBind(Material* material, struct Shader* shader);
 float lovrMaterialGetScalar(Material* material, MaterialScalar scalarType);
diff --git a/src/modules/graphics/model.c b/src/modules/graphics/model.c
index 11b452a2..de5113e7 100644
--- a/src/modules/graphics/model.c
+++ b/src/modules/graphics/model.c
@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@
 #include "graphics/texture.h"
 #include "resources/shaders.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <float.h>
 #include <math.h>
@@ -16,6 +15,7 @@ typedef struct {
 } NodeTransform;
 
 struct Model {
+  ref_t ref;
   struct ModelData* data;
   struct Buffer** buffers;
   struct Mesh** meshes;
@@ -76,7 +76,9 @@ static void renderNode(Model* model, uint32_t nodeIndex, uint32_t instances) {
 }
 
 Model* lovrModelCreate(ModelData* data) {
-  Model* model = lovrAlloc(Model);
+  Model* model = calloc(1, sizeof(Model));
+  lovrAssert(model, "Out of memory");
+  model->ref = 1;
   model->data = data;
   lovrRetain(data);
 
diff --git a/src/modules/graphics/opengl.c b/src/modules/graphics/opengl.c
index 8fec2216..01e3f0f6 100644
--- a/src/modules/graphics/opengl.c
+++ b/src/modules/graphics/opengl.c
@@ -8,7 +8,6 @@
 #include "resources/shaders.h"
 #include "data/modelData.h"
 #include "math/math.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <math.h>
 #include <limits.h>
 #include <string.h>
@@ -40,6 +39,7 @@
 #define LOVR_SHADER_DRAW_ID 7
 
 struct Buffer {
+  ref_t ref;
   uint32_t id;
   void* data;
   size_t size;
@@ -53,6 +53,7 @@ struct Buffer {
 };
 
 struct Texture {
+  ref_t ref;
   GLuint id;
   GLuint msaaId;
   GLenum target;
@@ -74,6 +75,7 @@ struct Texture {
 };
 
 struct Canvas {
+  ref_t ref;
   uint32_t framebuffer;
   uint32_t resolveBuffer;
   uint32_t depthBuffer;
@@ -89,6 +91,7 @@ struct Canvas {
 };
 
 struct ShaderBlock {
+  ref_t ref;
   BlockType type;
   arr_uniform_t uniforms;
   map_t uniformMap;
@@ -96,6 +99,7 @@ struct ShaderBlock {
 };
 
 struct Shader {
+  ref_t ref;
   uint32_t program;
   ShaderType type;
   arr_uniform_t uniforms;
@@ -107,6 +111,7 @@ struct Shader {
 };
 
 struct Mesh {
+  ref_t ref;
   uint32_t vao;
   uint32_t ibo;
   DrawMode mode;
@@ -1665,13 +1670,15 @@ const GpuStats* lovrGpuGetStats() {
 // Texture
 
 Texture* lovrTextureCreate(TextureType type, TextureData** slices, uint32_t sliceCount, bool srgb, bool mipmaps, uint32_t msaa) {
-  Texture* texture = lovrAlloc(Texture);
-  state.stats.textureCount++;
+  Texture* texture = calloc(1, sizeof(Texture));
+  lovrAssert(texture, "Out of memory");
+  texture->ref = 1;
   texture->type = type;
   texture->srgb = srgb;
   texture->mipmaps = mipmaps;
   texture->target = convertTextureTarget(type);
   texture->compareMode = COMPARE_NONE;
+  state.stats.textureCount++;
 
   WrapMode wrap = type == TEXTURE_CUBE ? WRAP_CLAMP : WRAP_REPEAT;
   glGenTextures(1, &texture->id);
@@ -1694,13 +1701,15 @@ Texture* lovrTextureCreate(TextureType type, TextureData** slices, uint32_t slic
 }
 
 Texture* lovrTextureCreateFromHandle(uint32_t handle, TextureType type, uint32_t depth, uint32_t msaa) {
-  Texture* texture = lovrAlloc(Texture);
-  state.stats.textureCount++;
+  Texture* texture = calloc(1, sizeof(Texture));
+  lovrAssert(texture, "Out of memory");
+  texture->ref = 1;
   texture->type = type;
   texture->id = handle;
   texture->target = convertTextureTarget(type);
   texture->compareMode = COMPARE_NONE;
   texture->native = true;
+  state.stats.textureCount++;
 
   int width, height;
   lovrGpuBindTexture(texture, 0);
@@ -1978,7 +1987,10 @@ void lovrTextureSetWrap(Texture* texture, TextureWrap wrap) {
 // Canvas
 
 Canvas* lovrCanvasCreate(uint32_t width, uint32_t height, CanvasFlags flags) {
-  Canvas* canvas = lovrAlloc(Canvas);
+  Canvas* canvas = calloc(1, sizeof(Canvas));
+  lovrAssert(canvas, "Out of memory");
+  canvas->ref = 1;
+
   if (flags.stereo && state.singlepass != MULTIVIEW) {
     width *= 2;
   }
@@ -2023,7 +2035,9 @@ Canvas* lovrCanvasCreate(uint32_t width, uint32_t height, CanvasFlags flags) {
 }
 
 Canvas* lovrCanvasCreateFromHandle(uint32_t width, uint32_t height, CanvasFlags flags, uint32_t framebuffer, uint32_t depthBuffer, uint32_t resolveBuffer, uint32_t attachmentCount, bool immortal) {
-  Canvas* canvas = lovrAlloc(Canvas);
+  Canvas* canvas = calloc(1, sizeof(Canvas));
+  lovrAssert(canvas, "Out of memory");
+  canvas->ref = 1;
   canvas->framebuffer = framebuffer;
   canvas->depthBuffer = depthBuffer;
   canvas->resolveBuffer = resolveBuffer;
@@ -2200,7 +2214,10 @@ Texture* lovrCanvasGetDepthTexture(Canvas* canvas) {
 // Buffer
 
 Buffer* lovrBufferCreate(size_t size, void* data, BufferType type, BufferUsage usage, bool readable) {
-  Buffer* buffer = lovrAlloc(Buffer);
+  Buffer* buffer = calloc(1, sizeof(Buffer));
+  lovrAssert(buffer, "Out of memory");
+  buffer->ref = 1;
+
   state.stats.bufferCount++;
   state.stats.bufferMemory += size;
   buffer->size = size;
@@ -2591,7 +2608,10 @@ static char* lovrShaderGetFlagCode(ShaderFlag* flags, uint32_t flagCount) {
 }
 
 Shader* lovrShaderCreateGraphics(const char* vertexSource, int vertexSourceLength, const char* fragmentSource, int fragmentSourceLength, ShaderFlag* flags, uint32_t flagCount, bool multiview) {
-  Shader* shader = lovrAlloc(Shader);
+  Shader* shader = calloc(1, sizeof(Shader));
+  lovrAssert(shader, "Out of memory");
+  shader->ref = 1;
+
 #if defined(LOVR_WEBGL) || defined(LOVR_GLES)
   const char* version = "#version 300 es\n";
 #else
@@ -2687,7 +2707,9 @@ Shader* lovrShaderCreateDefault(DefaultShader type, ShaderFlag* flags, uint32_t
 }
 
 Shader* lovrShaderCreateCompute(const char* source, int length, ShaderFlag* flags, uint32_t flagCount) {
-  Shader* shader = lovrAlloc(Shader);
+  Shader* shader = calloc(1, sizeof(Shader));
+  lovrAssert(shader, "Out of memory");
+  shader->ref = 1;
 #ifdef LOVR_WEBGL
   lovrThrow("Compute shaders are not supported on this system");
 #else
@@ -2840,7 +2862,10 @@ size_t lovrShaderComputeUniformLayout(arr_uniform_t* uniforms) {
 }
 
 ShaderBlock* lovrShaderBlockCreate(BlockType type, Buffer* buffer, arr_uniform_t* uniforms) {
-  ShaderBlock* block = lovrAlloc(ShaderBlock);
+  ShaderBlock* block = calloc(1, sizeof(ShaderBlock));
+  lovrAssert(block, "Out of memory");
+  block->ref = 1;
+
   arr_init(&block->uniforms);
   map_init(&block->uniformMap, (uint32_t) uniforms->length);
 
@@ -2931,7 +2956,9 @@ Buffer* lovrShaderBlockGetBuffer(ShaderBlock* block) {
 // Mesh
 
 Mesh* lovrMeshCreate(DrawMode mode, Buffer* vertexBuffer, uint32_t vertexCount) {
-  Mesh* mesh = lovrAlloc(Mesh);
+  Mesh* mesh = calloc(1, sizeof(Mesh));
+  lovrAssert(mesh, "Out of memory");
+  mesh->ref = 1;
   mesh->mode = mode;
   mesh->vertexBuffer = vertexBuffer;
   mesh->vertexCount = vertexCount;
diff --git a/src/modules/headset/headset_oculus.c b/src/modules/headset/headset_oculus.c
index 9714d697..b7d0efee 100644
--- a/src/modules/headset/headset_oculus.c
+++ b/src/modules/headset/headset_oculus.c
@@ -6,7 +6,6 @@
 #include "core/arr.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
 #include "core/map.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <OVR_CAPI.h>
 #include <OVR_CAPI_GL.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
diff --git a/src/modules/headset/headset_openvr.c b/src/modules/headset/headset_openvr.c
index d1b3b2b3..9f014597 100644
--- a/src/modules/headset/headset_openvr.c
+++ b/src/modules/headset/headset_openvr.c
@@ -23,7 +23,6 @@
 #include "graphics/model.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
 #include "core/os.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <stdbool.h>
 #include <stdio.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
@@ -618,7 +617,9 @@ static ModelData* openvr_newModelData(Device device, bool animated) {
     }
   }
 
-  ModelData* model = lovrAlloc(ModelData);
+  ModelData* model = calloc(1, sizeof(ModelData));
+  lovrAssert(model, "Out of memory");
+  model->ref = 1;
   model->blobCount = 2;
   model->nodeCount = animated ? (1 + modelCount) : 1;
   model->bufferCount = 2 * modelCount;
diff --git a/src/modules/headset/headset_openxr.c b/src/modules/headset/headset_openxr.c
index 88a7766c..6b9ab084 100644
--- a/src/modules/headset/headset_openxr.c
+++ b/src/modules/headset/headset_openxr.c
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@
 #include "graphics/graphics.h"
 #include "graphics/canvas.h"
 #include "graphics/texture.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <math.h>
diff --git a/src/modules/headset/headset_vrapi.c b/src/modules/headset/headset_vrapi.c
index a7a9431f..1db0a0df 100644
--- a/src/modules/headset/headset_vrapi.c
+++ b/src/modules/headset/headset_vrapi.c
@@ -5,7 +5,6 @@
 #include "graphics/model.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
 #include "core/os.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include <stdint.h>
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <string.h>
@@ -470,7 +469,9 @@ static struct ModelData* vrapi_newModelData(Device device, bool animated) {
     return NULL;
   }
 
-  ModelData* model = lovrAlloc(ModelData);
+  ModelData* model = calloc(1, sizeof(ModelData));
+  lovrAssert(model, "Out of memory");
+  model->ref = 1;
   model->blobCount = 2;
   model->bufferCount = 6;
   model->attributeCount = 6;
diff --git a/src/modules/math/curve.c b/src/modules/math/curve.c
index 66e12c45..79c3c64f 100644
--- a/src/modules/math/curve.c
+++ b/src/modules/math/curve.c
@@ -1,12 +1,12 @@
 #include "math/curve.h"
 #include "core/arr.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <math.h>
 
 struct Curve {
+  ref_t ref;
   arr_t(float) points;
 };
 
@@ -51,7 +51,9 @@ static void evaluate(float* LOVR_RESTRICT P, size_t n, float t, vec3 p) {
 }
 
 Curve* lovrCurveCreate(void) {
-  Curve* curve = lovrAlloc(Curve);
+  Curve* curve = calloc(1, sizeof(Curve));
+  lovrAssert(curve, "Out of memory");
+  curve->ref = 1;
   arr_init(&curve->points);
   arr_reserve(&curve->points, 16);
   return curve;
diff --git a/src/modules/math/math.c b/src/modules/math/math.c
index 8af81ea2..6f1dca10 100644
--- a/src/modules/math/math.c
+++ b/src/modules/math/math.c
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 #include "math.h"
 #include "math/randomGenerator.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include "lib/noise1234/noise1234.h"
 #include <math.h>
diff --git a/src/modules/math/pool.c b/src/modules/math/pool.c
index afad93dd..ec35c042 100644
--- a/src/modules/math/pool.c
+++ b/src/modules/math/pool.c
@@ -10,7 +10,10 @@ static const size_t vectorComponents[] = {
   [V_MAT4] = 16
 };
 
-Pool* lovrPoolInit(Pool* pool) {
+Pool* lovrPoolCreate() {
+  Pool* pool = calloc(1, sizeof(Pool));
+  lovrAssert(pool, "Out of memory");
+  pool->ref = 1;
   lovrPoolGrow(pool, 1 << 12);
   return pool;
 }
diff --git a/src/modules/math/pool.h b/src/modules/math/pool.h
index 4e8e3c9a..aaefda5e 100644
--- a/src/modules/math/pool.h
+++ b/src/modules/math/pool.h
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #include <stdint.h>
 #include <stddef.h>
+#include "core/util.h"
 
 #pragma once
 
@@ -24,14 +25,14 @@ typedef union {
 } Vector;
 
 typedef struct Pool {
+  ref_t ref;
   float* data;
   size_t count;
   size_t cursor;
   size_t generation;
 } Pool;
 
-Pool* lovrPoolInit(Pool* pool);
-#define lovrPoolCreate(...) lovrPoolInit(lovrAlloc(Pool))
+Pool* lovrPoolCreate(void);
 void lovrPoolDestroy(void* ref);
 void lovrPoolGrow(Pool* pool, size_t count);
 Vector lovrPoolAllocate(Pool* pool, VectorType type, float** data);
diff --git a/src/modules/math/randomGenerator.c b/src/modules/math/randomGenerator.c
index 4513a061..a8ac3d32 100644
--- a/src/modules/math/randomGenerator.c
+++ b/src/modules/math/randomGenerator.c
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #include "math/randomGenerator.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <math.h>
 #include <stdio.h>
@@ -7,6 +6,7 @@
 #include <inttypes.h>
 
 struct RandomGenerator {
+  ref_t ref;
   Seed seed;
   Seed state;
   double lastRandomNormal;
@@ -30,7 +30,9 @@ static uint64_t wangHash64(uint64_t key) {
 // Use an 'Xorshift*' variant, as shown here: http://xorshift.di.unimi.it
 
 RandomGenerator* lovrRandomGeneratorCreate(void) {
-  RandomGenerator* generator = lovrAlloc(RandomGenerator);
+  RandomGenerator* generator = calloc(1, sizeof(RandomGenerator));
+  lovrAssert(generator, "Out of memory");
+  generator->ref = 1;
   Seed seed = { .b32 = { .lo = 0xCBBF7A44, .hi = 0x0139408D } };
   lovrRandomGeneratorSetSeed(generator, seed);
   generator->lastRandomNormal = HUGE_VAL;
diff --git a/src/modules/physics/physics.c b/src/modules/physics/physics.c
index 5d235868..9888b776 100644
--- a/src/modules/physics/physics.c
+++ b/src/modules/physics/physics.c
@@ -1,5 +1,4 @@
 #include "physics.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <stdbool.h>
@@ -54,7 +53,10 @@ void lovrPhysicsDestroy() {
   initialized = false;
 }
 
-World* lovrWorldInit(World* world, float xg, float yg, float zg, bool allowSleep, const char** tags, uint32_t tagCount) {
+World* lovrWorldCreate(float xg, float yg, float zg, bool allowSleep, const char** tags, uint32_t tagCount) {
+  World* world = calloc(1, sizeof(World));
+  lovrAssert(world, "Out of memory");
+  world->ref = 1;
   world->id = dWorldCreate();
   world->space = dHashSpaceCreate(0);
   dHashSpaceSetLevels(world->space, -4, 8);
@@ -289,7 +291,10 @@ int lovrWorldIsCollisionEnabledBetween(World* world, const char* tag1, const cha
   return (world->masks[i] & (1 << j)) && (world->masks[j] & (1 << i));
 }
 
-Collider* lovrColliderInit(Collider* collider, World* world, float x, float y, float z) {
+Collider* lovrColliderCreate(World* world, float x, float y, float z) {
+  Collider* collider = calloc(1, sizeof(Collider));
+  lovrAssert(collider, "Out of memory");
+  collider->ref = 1;
   collider->body = dBodyCreate(world->id);
   collider->world = world;
   collider->friction = 0;
@@ -817,7 +822,10 @@ void lovrShapeGetAABB(Shape* shape, float aabb[6]) {
   dGeomGetAABB(shape->id, aabb);
 }
 
-SphereShape* lovrSphereShapeInit(SphereShape* sphere, float radius) {
+SphereShape* lovrSphereShapeCreate(float radius) {
+  SphereShape* sphere = calloc(1, sizeof(SphereShape));
+  lovrAssert(sphere, "Out of memory");
+  sphere->ref = 1;
   sphere->type = SHAPE_SPHERE;
   sphere->id = dCreateSphere(0, radius);
   dGeomSetData(sphere->id, sphere);
@@ -832,7 +840,10 @@ void lovrSphereShapeSetRadius(SphereShape* sphere, float radius) {
   dGeomSphereSetRadius(sphere->id, radius);
 }
 
-BoxShape* lovrBoxShapeInit(BoxShape* box, float x, float y, float z) {
+BoxShape* lovrBoxShapeCreate(float x, float y, float z) {
+  BoxShape* box = calloc(1, sizeof(BoxShape));
+  lovrAssert(box, "Out of memory");
+  box->ref = 1;
   box->type = SHAPE_BOX;
   box->id = dCreateBox(0, x, y, z);
   dGeomSetData(box->id, box);
@@ -851,7 +862,10 @@ void lovrBoxShapeSetDimensions(BoxShape* box, float x, float y, float z) {
   dGeomBoxSetLengths(box->id, x, y, z);
 }
 
-CapsuleShape* lovrCapsuleShapeInit(CapsuleShape* capsule, float radius, float length) {
+CapsuleShape* lovrCapsuleShapeCreate(float radius, float length) {
+  CapsuleShape* capsule = calloc(1, sizeof(CapsuleShape));
+  lovrAssert(capsule, "Out of memory");
+  capsule->ref = 1;
   capsule->type = SHAPE_CAPSULE;
   capsule->id = dCreateCapsule(0, radius, length);
   dGeomSetData(capsule->id, capsule);
@@ -878,7 +892,10 @@ void lovrCapsuleShapeSetLength(CapsuleShape* capsule, float length) {
   dGeomCapsuleSetParams(capsule->id, lovrCapsuleShapeGetRadius(capsule), length);
 }
 
-CylinderShape* lovrCylinderShapeInit(CylinderShape* cylinder, float radius, float length) {
+CylinderShape* lovrCylinderShapeCreate(float radius, float length) {
+  CylinderShape* cylinder = calloc(1, sizeof(CylinderShape));
+  lovrAssert(cylinder, "Out of memory");
+  cylinder->ref = 1;
   cylinder->type = SHAPE_CYLINDER;
   cylinder->id = dCreateCylinder(0, radius, length);
   dGeomSetData(cylinder->id, cylinder);
@@ -905,7 +922,10 @@ void lovrCylinderShapeSetLength(CylinderShape* cylinder, float length) {
   dGeomCylinderSetParams(cylinder->id, lovrCylinderShapeGetRadius(cylinder), length);
 }
 
-MeshShape* lovrMeshShapeInit(MeshShape* mesh, int vertexCount, float vertices[], int indexCount, dTriIndex indices[]) {
+MeshShape* lovrMeshShapeCreate(int vertexCount, float vertices[], int indexCount, dTriIndex indices[]) {
+  MeshShape* mesh = calloc(1, sizeof(MeshShape));
+  lovrAssert(mesh, "Out of memory");
+  mesh->ref = 1;
   dTriMeshDataID dataID = dGeomTriMeshDataCreate();
   dGeomTriMeshDataBuildSingle(dataID, vertices, 3 * sizeof(float), vertexCount, indices, indexCount, 3 * sizeof(dTriIndex));
   dGeomTriMeshDataPreprocess2(dataID, (1U << dTRIDATAPREPROCESS_BUILD_FACE_ANGLES), NULL);
@@ -964,8 +984,11 @@ void lovrJointSetEnabled(Joint* joint, bool enable) {
   }
 }
 
-BallJoint* lovrBallJointInit(BallJoint* joint, Collider* a, Collider* b, float x, float y, float z) {
+BallJoint* lovrBallJointCreate(Collider* a, Collider* b, float x, float y, float z) {
   lovrAssert(a->world == b->world, "Joint bodies must exist in same World");
+  BallJoint* joint = calloc(1, sizeof(BallJoint));
+  lovrAssert(joint, "Out of memory");
+  joint->ref = 1;
   joint->type = JOINT_BALL;
   joint->id = dJointCreateBall(a->world->id, 0);
   dJointSetData(joint->id, joint);
@@ -1007,8 +1030,11 @@ void lovrBallJointSetTightness(Joint* joint, float tightness) {
   dJointSetBallParam(joint->id, dParamERP, tightness);
 }
 
-DistanceJoint* lovrDistanceJointInit(DistanceJoint* joint, Collider* a, Collider* b, float x1, float y1, float z1, float x2, float y2, float z2) {
+DistanceJoint* lovrDistanceJointCreate(Collider* a, Collider* b, float x1, float y1, float z1, float x2, float y2, float z2) {
   lovrAssert(a->world == b->world, "Joint bodies must exist in same World");
+  DistanceJoint* joint = calloc(1, sizeof(DistanceJoint));
+  lovrAssert(joint, "Out of memory");
+  joint->ref = 1;
   joint->type = JOINT_DISTANCE;
   joint->id = dJointCreateDBall(a->world->id, 0);
   dJointSetData(joint->id, joint);
@@ -1059,8 +1085,11 @@ void lovrDistanceJointSetTightness(Joint* joint, float tightness) {
   dJointSetDBallParam(joint->id, dParamERP, tightness);
 }
 
-HingeJoint* lovrHingeJointInit(HingeJoint* joint, Collider* a, Collider* b, float x, float y, float z, float ax, float ay, float az) {
+HingeJoint* lovrHingeJointCreate(Collider* a, Collider* b, float x, float y, float z, float ax, float ay, float az) {
   lovrAssert(a->world == b->world, "Joint bodies must exist in same World");
+  HingeJoint* joint = calloc(1, sizeof(HingeJoint));
+  lovrAssert(joint, "Out of memory");
+  joint->ref = 1;
   joint->type = JOINT_HINGE;
   joint->id = dJointCreateHinge(a->world->id, 0);
   dJointSetData(joint->id, joint);
@@ -1119,8 +1148,11 @@ void lovrHingeJointSetUpperLimit(HingeJoint* joint, float limit) {
   dJointSetHingeParam(joint->id, dParamHiStop, limit);
 }
 
-SliderJoint* lovrSliderJointInit(SliderJoint* joint, Collider* a, Collider* b, float ax, float ay, float az) {
+SliderJoint* lovrSliderJointCreate(Collider* a, Collider* b, float ax, float ay, float az) {
   lovrAssert(a->world == b->world, "Joint bodies must exist in the same world");
+  SliderJoint* joint = calloc(1, sizeof(SliderJoint));
+  lovrAssert(joint, "Out of memory");
+  joint->ref = 1;
   joint->type = JOINT_SLIDER;
   joint->id = dJointCreateSlider(a->world->id, 0);
   dJointSetData(joint->id, joint);
diff --git a/src/modules/physics/physics.h b/src/modules/physics/physics.h
index 32f2c490..c656c7f3 100644
--- a/src/modules/physics/physics.h
+++ b/src/modules/physics/physics.h
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #include "core/arr.h"
 #include "core/maf.h"
+#include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdint.h>
 #include <stdbool.h>
 #include <ode/ode.h>
@@ -30,6 +31,7 @@ typedef struct Shape Shape;
 typedef struct Joint Joint;
 
 typedef struct {
+  ref_t ref;
   dWorldID id;
   dSpaceID space;
   dJointGroupID contactGroup;
@@ -40,6 +42,7 @@ typedef struct {
 } World;
 
 struct Collider {
+  ref_t ref;
   dBodyID body;
   World* world;
   Collider* prev;
@@ -53,6 +56,7 @@ struct Collider {
 };
 
 struct Shape {
+  ref_t ref;
   ShapeType type;
   dGeomID id;
   Collider* collider;
@@ -67,6 +71,7 @@ typedef Shape CylinderShape;
 typedef Shape MeshShape;
 
 struct Joint {
+  ref_t ref;
   JointType type;
   dJointID id;
   void* userdata;
@@ -88,8 +93,7 @@ typedef struct {
 bool lovrPhysicsInit(void);
 void lovrPhysicsDestroy(void);
 
-World* lovrWorldInit(World* world, float xg, float yg, float zg, bool allowSleep, const char** tags, uint32_t tagCount);
-#define lovrWorldCreate(...) lovrWorldInit(lovrAlloc(World), __VA_ARGS__)
+World* lovrWorldCreate(float xg, float yg, float zg, bool allowSleep, const char** tags, uint32_t tagCount);
 void lovrWorldDestroy(void* ref);
 void lovrWorldDestroyData(World* world);
 void lovrWorldUpdate(World* world, float dt, CollisionResolver resolver, void* userdata);
@@ -115,8 +119,7 @@ int lovrWorldDisableCollisionBetween(World* world, const char* tag1, const char*
 int lovrWorldEnableCollisionBetween(World* world, const char* tag1, const char* tag2);
 int lovrWorldIsCollisionEnabledBetween(World* world, const char* tag1, const char* tag);
 
-Collider* lovrColliderInit(Collider* collider, World* world, float x, float y, float z);
-#define lovrColliderCreate(...) lovrColliderInit(lovrAlloc(Collider), __VA_ARGS__)
+Collider* lovrColliderCreate(World* world, float x, float y, float z);
 void lovrColliderDestroy(void* ref);
 void lovrColliderDestroyData(Collider* collider);
 void lovrColliderInitInertia(Collider* collider, Shape* shape);
@@ -186,36 +189,31 @@ void lovrShapeSetOrientation(Shape* shape, quat orientation);
 void lovrShapeGetMass(Shape* shape, float density, float* cx, float* cy, float* cz, float* mass, float inertia[6]);
 void lovrShapeGetAABB(Shape* shape, float aabb[6]);
 
-SphereShape* lovrSphereShapeInit(SphereShape* sphere, float radius);
-#define lovrSphereShapeCreate(...) lovrSphereShapeInit(lovrAlloc(SphereShape), __VA_ARGS__)
+SphereShape* lovrSphereShapeCreate(float radius);
 #define lovrSphereShapeDestroy lovrShapeDestroy
 float lovrSphereShapeGetRadius(SphereShape* sphere);
 void lovrSphereShapeSetRadius(SphereShape* sphere, float radius);
 
-BoxShape* lovrBoxShapeInit(BoxShape* box, float x, float y, float z);
-#define lovrBoxShapeCreate(...) lovrBoxShapeInit(lovrAlloc(BoxShape), __VA_ARGS__)
+BoxShape* lovrBoxShapeCreate(float x, float y, float z);
 #define lovrBoxShapeDestroy lovrShapeDestroy
 void lovrBoxShapeGetDimensions(BoxShape* box, float* x, float* y, float* z);
 void lovrBoxShapeSetDimensions(BoxShape* box, float x, float y, float z);
 
-CapsuleShape* lovrCapsuleShapeInit(CapsuleShape* capsule, float radius, float length);
-#define lovrCapsuleShapeCreate(...) lovrCapsuleShapeInit(lovrAlloc(CapsuleShape), __VA_ARGS__)
+CapsuleShape* lovrCapsuleShapeCreate(float radius, float length);
 #define lovrCapsuleShapeDestroy lovrShapeDestroy
 float lovrCapsuleShapeGetRadius(CapsuleShape* capsule);
 void lovrCapsuleShapeSetRadius(CapsuleShape* capsule, float radius);
 float lovrCapsuleShapeGetLength(CapsuleShape* capsule);
 void lovrCapsuleShapeSetLength(CapsuleShape* capsule, float length);
 
-CylinderShape* lovrCylinderShapeInit(CylinderShape* cylinder, float radius, float length);
-#define lovrCylinderShapeCreate(...) lovrCylinderShapeInit(lovrAlloc(CylinderShape), __VA_ARGS__)
+CylinderShape* lovrCylinderShapeCreate(float radius, float length);
 #define lovrCylinderShapeDestroy lovrShapeDestroy
 float lovrCylinderShapeGetRadius(CylinderShape* cylinder);
 void lovrCylinderShapeSetRadius(CylinderShape* cylinder, float radius);
 float lovrCylinderShapeGetLength(CylinderShape* cylinder);
 void lovrCylinderShapeSetLength(CylinderShape* cylinder, float length);
 
-MeshShape* lovrMeshShapeInit(MeshShape* mesh, int vertexCount, float vertices[], int indexCount, dTriIndex indices[]);
-#define lovrMeshShapeCreate(...) lovrMeshShapeInit(lovrAlloc(MeshShape), __VA_ARGS__)
+MeshShape* lovrMeshShapeCreate(int vertexCount, float vertices[], int indexCount, dTriIndex indices[]);
 #define lovrMeshShapeDestroy lovrShapeDestroy
 
 void lovrJointDestroy(void* ref);
@@ -231,8 +229,7 @@ void lovrJointSetUserData(Joint* joint, void* data);
 bool lovrJointIsEnabled(Joint* joint);
 void lovrJointSetEnabled(Joint* joint, bool enable);
 
-BallJoint* lovrBallJointInit(BallJoint* joint, Collider* a, Collider* b, float x, float y, float z);
-#define lovrBallJointCreate(...) lovrBallJointInit(lovrAlloc(BallJoint), __VA_ARGS__)
+BallJoint* lovrBallJointCreate(Collider* a, Collider* b, float x, float y, float z);
 #define lovrBallJointDestroy lovrJointDestroy
 void lovrBallJointGetAnchors(BallJoint* joint, float* x1, float* y1, float* z1, float* x2, float* y2, float* z2);
 void lovrBallJointSetAnchor(BallJoint* joint, float x, float y, float z);
@@ -241,8 +238,7 @@ void lovrBallJointSetResponseTime(Joint* joint, float responseTime);
 float lovrBallJointGetTightness(Joint* joint);
 void lovrBallJointSetTightness(Joint* joint, float tightness);
 
-DistanceJoint* lovrDistanceJointInit(DistanceJoint* joint, Collider* a, Collider* b, float x1, float y1, float z1, float x2, float y2, float z2);
-#define lovrDistanceJointCreate(...) lovrDistanceJointInit(lovrAlloc(DistanceJoint), __VA_ARGS__)
+DistanceJoint* lovrDistanceJointCreate(Collider* a, Collider* b, float x1, float y1, float z1, float x2, float y2, float z2);
 #define lovrDistanceJointDestroy lovrJointDestroy
 void lovrDistanceJointGetAnchors(DistanceJoint* joint, float* x1, float* y1, float* z1, float* x2, float* y2, float* z2);
 void lovrDistanceJointSetAnchors(DistanceJoint* joint, float x1, float y1, float z1, float x2, float y2, float z2);
@@ -253,8 +249,7 @@ void lovrDistanceJointSetResponseTime(Joint* joint, float responseTime);
 float lovrDistanceJointGetTightness(Joint* joint);
 void lovrDistanceJointSetTightness(Joint* joint, float tightness);
 
-HingeJoint* lovrHingeJointInit(HingeJoint* joint, Collider* a, Collider* b, float x, float y, float z, float ax, float ay, float az);
-#define lovrHingeJointCreate(...) lovrHingeJointInit(lovrAlloc(HingeJoint), __VA_ARGS__)
+HingeJoint* lovrHingeJointCreate(Collider* a, Collider* b, float x, float y, float z, float ax, float ay, float az);
 #define lovrHingeJointDestroy lovrJointDestroy
 void lovrHingeJointGetAnchors(HingeJoint* joint, float* x1, float* y1, float* z1, float* x2, float* y2, float* z2);
 void lovrHingeJointSetAnchor(HingeJoint* joint, float x, float y, float z);
@@ -266,8 +261,7 @@ void lovrHingeJointSetLowerLimit(HingeJoint* joint, float limit);
 float lovrHingeJointGetUpperLimit(HingeJoint* joint);
 void lovrHingeJointSetUpperLimit(HingeJoint* joint, float limit);
 
-SliderJoint* lovrSliderJointInit(SliderJoint* joint, Collider* a, Collider* b, float ax, float ay, float az);
-#define lovrSliderJointCreate(...) lovrSliderJointInit(lovrAlloc(SliderJoint), __VA_ARGS__)
+SliderJoint* lovrSliderJointCreate(Collider* a, Collider* b, float ax, float ay, float az);
 #define lovrSliderJointDestroy lovrJointDestroy
 void lovrSliderJointGetAxis(SliderJoint* joint, float* x, float* y, float* z);
 void lovrSliderJointSetAxis(SliderJoint* joint, float x, float y, float z);
diff --git a/src/modules/thread/channel.c b/src/modules/thread/channel.c
index 7d8e74d5..687a1dd3 100644
--- a/src/modules/thread/channel.c
+++ b/src/modules/thread/channel.c
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 #include "thread/channel.h"
 #include "event/event.h"
 #include "core/arr.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include "lib/tinycthread/tinycthread.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
@@ -9,6 +8,7 @@
 #include <math.h>
 
 struct Channel {
+  ref_t ref;
   mtx_t lock;
   cnd_t cond;
   arr_t(Variant) messages;
@@ -19,7 +19,9 @@ struct Channel {
 };
 
 Channel* lovrChannelCreate(uint64_t hash) {
-  Channel* channel = lovrAlloc(Channel);
+  Channel* channel = calloc(1, sizeof(Channel));
+  lovrAssert(channel, "Out of memory");
+  channel->ref = 1;
   arr_init(&channel->messages);
   mtx_init(&channel->lock, mtx_plain | mtx_timed);
   cnd_init(&channel->cond);
diff --git a/src/modules/thread/thread.c b/src/modules/thread/thread.c
index 0b4bd1f8..05eed5b4 100644
--- a/src/modules/thread/thread.c
+++ b/src/modules/thread/thread.c
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 #include "thread/channel.h"
 #include "core/arr.h"
 #include "core/map.h"
-#include "core/ref.h"
 #include "core/util.h"
 #include <stdlib.h>
 #include <string.h>
@@ -53,11 +52,14 @@ Channel* lovrThreadGetChannel(const char* name) {
   return entry.channel;
 }
 
-Thread* lovrThreadInit(Thread* thread, int (*runner)(void*), Blob* body) {
-  lovrRetain(body);
+Thread* lovrThreadCreate(int (*runner)(void*), Blob* body) {
+  Thread* thread = calloc(1, sizeof(Thread));
+  lovrAssert(thread, "Out of memory");
+  thread->ref = 1;
   thread->runner = runner;
   thread->body = body;
   mtx_init(&thread->lock, mtx_plain);
+  lovrRetain(body);
   return thread;
 }
 
diff --git a/src/modules/thread/thread.h b/src/modules/thread/thread.h
index 57c5a19c..65713b0e 100644
--- a/src/modules/thread/thread.h
+++ b/src/modules/thread/thread.h
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 #include "data/blob.h"
 #include "event/event.h"
+#include "core/util.h"
 #include "lib/tinycthread/tinycthread.h"
 #include <stdbool.h>
 #include <stdint.h>
@@ -14,6 +15,7 @@
 struct Channel;
 
 typedef struct Thread {
+  ref_t ref;
   thrd_t handle;
   mtx_t lock;
   Blob* body;
@@ -29,8 +31,7 @@ void lovrThreadModuleDestroy(void);
 struct Channel* lovrThreadGetChannel(const char* name);
 void lovrThreadRemoveChannel(uint64_t hash);
 
-Thread* lovrThreadInit(Thread* thread, int (*runner)(void*), Blob* body);
-#define lovrThreadCreate(...) lovrThreadInit(lovrAlloc(Thread), __VA_ARGS__)
+Thread* lovrThreadCreate(int (*runner)(void*), Blob* body);
 void lovrThreadDestroy(void* ref);
 void lovrThreadStart(Thread* thread, Variant* arguments, uint32_t argumentCount);
 void lovrThreadWait(Thread* thread);